Asian American Women Essay Example for Free

Asian American Women Essay Dr. Eliza Noh from the California State University-Fullerton has spent much of her professional life studying depression and suicide among Asian-American women. She was inspired to do so and was triggered by her sister’s suicide incident in 1990. In one of her findings, she mentioned about the culturalist biases in psychology. This explained the tendency to expound on Asian-American psychology in culturalist terms (Confucianism and Acculturation model,) static and the dualistic portrayals of Asian American culture vs western culture (Traditional vs. Modern. ) She also explained the roles of race and gender issues that were experienced by many Asian American women. This included the role of orientalism and the stereotype of the â€Å"perpetual foreigner,† including the racial and gender dynamics in perpetuating cultural hegemonies, and the impact of racism and sexism. As described in the presentation, Asian Americans are often expected to be smart in math and science. Other educational expectations are also set because of their race and ethnicities. For most Asian Americans, suicide survivors had developed diverse healing strategies that challenged liberal approaches to recovery; there is this unfeasibility of recovery itself. One thing that was found helping Asian American women that reduced suicide commitments was writing. It also empowered these women to give themselves another chance in life. My thoughts on this presentation were normal, for I was Asian myself. It is a fact that Asian Americans often carry high expectation from parents, friends, or even from their own self-esteem. I personally experienced that something was inappropriate with regards to my academic ranking in junior high school. My academic stance in school was not as high as the expectations set by my parents that led me to believe that I was not love and that I was a useless child. I even thought about leaving home and just be part of the homeless. But my friends encouraged me to look forward and forget about the limitations at home, and enjoy my life the way I wanted. After all, I enjoyed my junior high with tons of fun and excitements; surprisingly I had also reached the expectations that were for myself improvement. Learning from this class and from Dr. Eliza Noh’s presentation gave me an insight of the many expectations set for women in all the cultural perspectives. This includes not only the bodily image that the public and media are looking for, but also the pressure from family and peers in pursuing educational goals. A failure in the accomplishment of goals normally results in many uncomfortable scenarios, and may even lead to suicide.

Reaction to Transcendentalism Essay Example for Free

Reaction to Transcendentalism Essay After reading the Transcendentalist works of Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, I was surprised at my reaction to them. From what I had originally heard, the Transcendentalist works were boring essays. However, after reading them, I discovered that I can relate to many things that Emerson and Thoreau discuss in their papers. Though I liked Emerson more than I liked Thoreau, both of them impressed me with their ability to take such a strong stand on issues that most people can identify with. One Transcendentalist piece that we read was Nature by Ralph Waldo Emerson. This excerpt describes Emersons views on nature and how it affects man. He says that in nature, man becomes like a child and is able to enjoy a perfect exhilaration. When he experiences the calm and peacefulness of nature, Emerson feels as though he has returned to reason and faith and has found his true self. He then goes on to describe how he becomes a transparent eyeball, seeing all but not being seen himself; it is as if he is invisible. After reading this, I was a little confused by his language and strange metaphors. But then I realized that Emerson is right. When we take a hike, or go for a walk, we are experiencing nature the way are meant to experience it. We can go back to our roots and find the perfect way to fit in with our surroundings, to harmonize with the world around us. This excerpt made me think of the peace and calm of a perfectly harmonized world. Another piece we read was Self-Reliance, also by Ralph Waldo Emerson. I also enjoyed reading this piece because it discusses a humans urge to be himself, even when society and civilization try to stop us. He says that without trying no one ever knows what he is truly capable of. If we let the influence of others affect us, we can never really experience our lives the way we were created to. We are also sometimes afraid to express our whole selves, and we are ashamed of that divine idea with each of us represents. I can relate to this quote directly, because I am sometimes ashamed of things in my life that I should be proud of. Emerson brings up conformity and societys constant pressure to fit the mold, but then he says that if we want to be true men (or women), we must be nonconformists. We cannot allow someone to tell us how to act, and we cannot be afraid to be misunderstood, for many people who are famous today were misunderstood during their lives. I thoroughly enjoyed reading this excerpt, because it touched on topics that I seem to experience in my own life and let me know that others have the same problems finding strength in themselves as I do. The next piece to discuss is Civil Disobedience by Henry David Thoreau. In this essay, Thoreau lashes out against the American government in response to the Mexican War, which is being fought at that time. He discusses the corruption that the government can undergo, and how it is in fact hindering the people instead of helping them achieve their goals. He asks for a better government which will work for the benefit of the people rather than its own benefit. Thoreau also claims that, in the future, a government may not even be necessary at all, for the people are strong enough to run themselves. I agree with certain parts of Thoreaus ideas, but not all of them. My initial reaction to Civil Disobedience was one of anger for Thoreaus traitorous remarks. However, I have to admit that governments are at many times corrupt and work for themselves rather than for the people. The Transcendentalist authors wrote about their views on life, government, and human nature. After reading some of their work, I am amazed that I could actually relate to some of the ideas they discussed, especially Ralph Waldo Emersons. Although some of the language is hard to understand and the descriptions take some time to comprehend, the essays opened me up to a world where people wrote down exactly how they felt and wanted to use those feelings to make a difference. The Transcendentalists impressed me, which is something I never would have expected.

Organisational Risk Management in Project Management

Organisational Risk Management in Project Management CHAPTER 2 2.1 Preview This chapter provides the reader about the theory and rationale behind the use of Organisational Risk Analysis (ORA) on project management and its methodologies available in the market. It will also cover the work of different authors to afford better understanding of the subjected area i.e. Project management, Risk analysis and Organisational risk analysis. The source of information of this literature review is mainly from books, journals and white papers. 2.2 Introduction Through this literature review one can know what others understanding about this study i.e. nothing but historical perspectives. First part of the literature focuses on project management and risk analysis and risk analysis types, second part of this literature focuses on Organisational Risk Analysis (ORA) and Role of ORA in Project management. It mainly concentrates on Project management, risk analysis and organisational risk analysis. 2.3 Introduction to Project Management: PMBOK (Project Management Body of Knowledge as defined by the Project Management Institute — PMI):Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements. (PMI 2004) According to James P. Lewis â€Å"The Project management is facilitating the planning, scheduling and controlling of all activities that must be done to achieve project objectives† (James P. Lewis: 2007) PRINCE 2 project management methodology: The planning, monitoring and control of all aspects of the project and the motivation of all those involved in it to achieve the project objectives on time and to the specified cost, quality and performance. A project is usually one time activity with a well defined set of desired and results. It can be divided into subtasks that must be accomplished in order to achieve the project goals. In this day and age also it is assumed that project management can be enhanced by scientific methods. There is a very strong reason why these beliefs are created, it all accounts to the fact that todays modern world has given professionals numerous amount of opportunities to execute their projects successfully. Such are the kind of investment options that are given to project investors. They are briefed with all the minute details so that they feel that their investment is secure. They also make sure that the estimated time of completion and the end can be calculated at the beginning of the project itself. The decisions that are taken on a technical basis or which are taken looking at the low opportunity costs that it presents are reversible in nature. The demand for resources can also be calculated once the initial parameters such as the duration and time frame of the project are estimated. Due to the advancement in technology even the most terrible consequences can be predicted. à ¢â‚¬Å"The failure of the project was due to the lack of skills rather than an inappropriate feasibility, suitability or acceptability of the solution. This is a normal–science view of project management.† (Charette and Robert, 1996) The projection of ideas and activities into new accomplishments are one of the common characteristics of all projects. There are many different definitions of what constitutes project management such as â€Å"An unique set of co-ordinated activities, with definite starting and finishing points, undertaken by an individual or a team to meet specific objectives within a definite period of time, cost and performance parameters† (Office of Government Commerce). (Web4, 2009) J. Pinto and Prescott (1990) stated, â€Å"Researchers in project management need to first and most importantly offer a comprehensive, inclusive, and clear definition of project success before attempting to undertake studies of the project implementation process†. (J.Pinto and Prescott, 1990) The modern project management started in 1950s, before this period projects were executed in an unplanned manner and the methods and tools used for execution were not professional in nature. The importance of project management is a very important topic because all organisations i.e. either be they are small or large organisations, those are involved in implementing new accomplishments. These accomplishments may be diverse, such as, the improvement of an innovative product, introducing a new range of products in a manufacturing base, a promotional advertisement or a major construction project. In the 1980s the focus was more on the quality of work. Globalisation played a huge role in the 1990s as we were trying to improve our economy, the 2000s saw projects with decreased time frames. A new field known as project management was developing from all new areas of application which included construction, engineering, telecommunications, and defence. This emerging field has now become an important part of our economy as it has produced a string of fabulous results. Hence it is now being applied by the corporate world as well as the government. Duncan Haughey (2008) explained some main definitions of what project management is: â€Å"Project management is not a continuous process. It has a definite beginning and end.† â€Å"Project management uses various tools to measure accomplishments and track project tasks. These include Work Breakdown Structures, Gantt charts and PERT charts.† â€Å"Projects frequently need resources on an ad-hoc basis as opposed to organisations that have only dedicated full-time positions.† â€Å"Project management reduces risk and increases the chance of success.† â€Å"Successful project management is delivering your projects on time, to brief and within budget.† (Duncan Haughy, 2008) 2.3.1 Methodology of Project Management: According to Bradley (2002) Project management methodology means â€Å"Project Management Methodology focuses on the project and can be in any industry and any type of projects ranging from construction to aerospace industries and from projects of Financial to IT in nature, it encompasses all projects† The above diagram shows the main components of one of the main project management methodology. Some of the elements like project start-up and project closure occur only once. The remaining elements like planning, managing and controlling, form an interactive cycle that may repeat many times before the completion of the project. In other words we can also say project management is the discipline of planning, organising and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific projects goals and objectives. Each and every project is different in nature. Any project would involve a certain amount of risk and hence require perfect planning and execution if they have to succeed. The main aim of project management is to predict any complications or problems in the project well before hand so that when the project plan is made all these factors can also be taken into consideration and hence the chances of the project being completed successfully would be much higher. Almost every project we do in todays business world involve a risk of some kind: change in customer needs, unrealistic time scales, inappropriate staff, poor project specifications , failure to manage user expectations could delay the project. Projects need to be performed and delivered under certain constraints. Traditionally these constraints have been listed as scope, time and quality. This is also called as ‘project management triangle. One side of the triangle cannot be changed without affecting others. The time constraint refers to the amount of time available to complete a project, scope refers to what must be done to produce the projects end result and cost refers to the budgeted amount available for the project. Increasing Scope ( Increasing Time + Increasing Cost Decreasing Time ( Increasing Cost + Reducing Scope Tight Budget ( Increase Time + Reducing Scope. If we modify any of the factors, the other two has to be changed, if not the risk may appear high. But formal risk analysis and risk management can help you to assess these risks and decide what action to take to minimize disruptions to your project plans. According to J. Davidson Frame (2007) the basic outline of project management is described below Project managers bear ultimate responsibility for making things happen. Traditionally, they have carried out this role as mere implementers. To do their jobs they needed to have basic administrative and technical competencies. Today they play a far broader role. In addition to the traditional skills, they need to have business skills, customer relations skills, and political skills. Psychologically, they must be results-oriented self-starters with a high tolerance for ambiguity, because little is clear-cut in todays tumultuous business environment. Shortcomings in any of these areas can lead to project failure. – (J. Davidson Frame, 2007) Project management is discipline that applies to any project; every company has their own way of doing their projects. The project management is not very easy it is totally a leadership position and with technical talent it cannot be done. Project manager without enough experience cannot hold for a long-time on the same project if the assumption of the company goes wrong in selecting the project manager it will be in risk. (Sanjay Murthi, Preventive Risk Management for Software Projects) 2.4 Risk Analysis: The word ‘RISK derives from the early Italian risicare, which means ‘TO DARE. (Websters Dictionary: 1989) One of the most important activities in project management is to identify and manage the uncertainties and problems during the project tenure. When dealing with research and development projects it must be made note of that the number of events present are very high which could alter the course of the project The amount of risk involved in the project would mainly depend on the size of the project. The contractors of the project are the people who deal with the risks of the project, their main duties would involve to identify risks. Then they study them and find as solution so that could remove or minimize them. Apart form this they should also have a clear understanding of the different types of risk involved and ways as to how they can be managed and projects can be completed in a risk free manner. (The Owners Role in Project Risk Management National Research Council (U.S.A). Committee for Oversight and Assessment of U.S. the national academic press, Washington DC). A report that shows assets, vulnerabilities, likelihood of damage, estimates of the costs of recovery, summaries of possible defensive measures and their costs and estimated probable savings from better protection. A risk analysis is the process of assessing the level of risk involved, this is also known as a threat and risk assessment. A threat is a harmful act such as the deployment of a virus or illegal network penetration. A risk is the expectation that a threat may succeed and the potential damage that can occur. (Web1, 2009) Risk analysis allows you to examine the risks that your organization faces. It is the process of systematically identifying and assessing the potential risks and uncertainties that occur when trying to achieve a certain goal (like reaching a target income or finishing a project), and then finding a feasible strategy for most efficiently controlling those risks. ‘The systematic process to understand the nature of and to deduce the level of risk. It provides the basis for risk evaluation and decisions about risk treatment. (AS/NZS 4360:2004 (p. 4). According to Michael R. Greenberg †Risk Analysis ranked among the top 10 journals in the ISI Journal Citation Reports under the social sciences, mathematical methods category is designed to meet the need for organization, integration, and communication and provide a focal point for new developments in the field.† (Michael R. Greenberg: 2008) Evidence from the literature suggests that project managers perform risk analysis because somebody else, e.g. their client, the parent company or the Government, has demanded it (Boothroyd, 1996; Smith, 1998). The analysis of risk is being increasingly viewed as a field in itself, and the demand for a more orderly and formal treatment of risk is great. This international journal is committed to publishing critical empirical research, conference proceedings, and commentaries dealing with risk issues. In other terms we can say the measure of risk can be determined as a product of threat, vulnerability and asset value in an organisation. Risk = Asset * Threat * Vulnerability. Risk analysis may play an important role in cost- benefit studies, which compare the costs of a particular action or project against its potential benefits. It is a systematic study of uncertainties and risks we encounter in business, engineering and many other areas. Risk analysts seek to identify the risks faced by an organization or a business unit, understand how and when they arise, and estimate the impact of adverse outcomes. Techniques used in risk analysis include sensitivity analysis, probability analysis, simulation and modeling. Risk analysis may be used to develop an organizational risk profile, and also may be the first stage in risk management program. Risk analysis may be undertaken to varying degrees of detail depending upon the risk, the purpose of the analysis, and the information, data and resources available. In todays world where competition has become global, it is very important that firms control the different kinds of risk that they are dealing with as it has become an essential part in achieving corporate success. The people who are involved such as customers, investors and others asking companies for complete transparency on their investments. Thus risk analysis is necessary to protect an organisations competitive position. Most industries are particularly plagued by risks, but it has been slow in realising the potential benefits of sound and systematic risk management (Al-Bahar and Crandall, 1990; Ward et. al. 1991; Thomson and Perry, 1992; Flanagan and Norman, 1993; Raftery, 1994; Fellows, 1996; Edward and Bowen, 1998).While coming for the software industries risk analysis and management are a sequential progression that help in guiding a software team in understanding and managing risks. A risk is a potential problem, it might happen, it might not. But regardless of the outcome it is really good idea to identify it, assess its probability of occurrence, estimate the impact and establish a contingency plan should the problem actually occurs. According to Bernstein â€Å"the mystery of risk is a critical step in the development of modern society. One can discuss the validity of his conclusion, but there should be no doubt that risk and uncertainty are important concepts to address for supporting decision-making in many situations†. This Risk Analysis may be qualitative, semi-qualitative or quantitative or a combination of these three, depending on the circumstances. The criticality of risk analysis doesnt wholly depend on identifying the risk factors. It also depends on categorizing them according to their threat level. So let us see how the whole concept of risk analysis starts. There are two types of risk analysis. Both these methods are very important in the assessment of risk and can be executed in any order. It is very important to understand the difference between these two risks as there is a very thin line separating them. Those are: Quantitative Risk Analysis Qualitative Risk Analysis (Identification of types of risk analysis) 2.5. Quantitative Risk Analysis: Quantitative Risk Analysis has become an important component of project management. Quantitative risk analysis attempts to assign independently objective monetary values to the components of the risk assessment and to the assessment of the potential loss. According to Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK  ® Guide, Third edition 2004, Project Management Institute) â€Å"Quantitative Risk Analysis is performed on risks that have been prioritized by the Qualitative Risk Analysis process as potentially and substantially impacting project ‘s completing demands. The Quantitative Risk Analysis process analyzes the effect of those risk events and assigns a numerical rating to those risks.† (PMBOK Guide, 2004) This method gives the project manager a foresight as to how the project would progress if risks associated with it would occur. Hence due to this method the project mangers are able to counter these risks and also account to better execution of projects. A quantitative risk analysis offers the following distinct advantages: much more neutrality is involved in this assessment offers much more advantages to management when compared to assessment techniques More powerful selling tool to management It is very flexible in nature and can be moulded to different situations. It can be adjusted according to the needs of specific industries. Its appeal is very universal in nature and hence does not give rise to much disagreements The base facts of the analysis are very convincing ones. In order to implement quantitative risk analysis, the total estimated value that would account to the losses that would occur due to time delay, theft or loss of data is to be calculated. Then a probability analysis is done so that the chances of the risk occurring can be calculated. After all this is done in the final step the annual loss expectancy is calculated. (Miller). A quantitative risk analysis analyses the results that certain controversial units would have on outcomes that we are most concerned about such as loss, profit and investment returns. Quantitative risk gives different perspectives on different people: To the security consultant: To attract newly started businesses by adapting quantitative analysis to access projects that were out of reach in the past. If the projects met up to the predicted return on investment then it could serve as a better tool for marketing. To the companys upper management: Less vulnerable to company politics time required for assessing proposal validity is very less Inter- relates final results to financial aims and goals. Quantitative risk analysis assists managers in analyzing whether the projects can be completed in a particular time frame and within the required estimated budget. It also helps in finding out the key parameters that would determine the success or failure of the project. It also helps in finding out whether the project is worth investing in for investors. But all these data should have some historical backing otherwise they would be rendered meaningless. These data should be updated from time to time during the due course of the project taking the actual input parameters into consideration. This in other terms is also known as â€Å"Garbage In – Garbage Out. Even though all this is done project management is subject to certain biases. The most basic solution is to collect data from qualitative project management software. This kind of integration has already been implemented and has been successful in the past as well. Quantitative risk analysis tools initiate Monte Carlo process to find out how risks would have an impact on project schedules. The most well known methods for simulating risks and other problems is Event Chain Methodology. In this methodology all the projects tat are present are effected by certain external parameters which could in turn change the face of the project. These events should be analysed with the help of the qualitative risk management software. This is an important aspect as these measures could give rise to event chains that can alter the course of the project. By finding out these event chains the risks involved can be reduced. Quantitative risk analysis is more related to implementing safety measures when compared to qualitative risk analysis is. This risk analysis when implemented by companies tries to protect the firm from every defined risk. It also helps in determining which counter method can be used for minimizing the risks involved with projects. In this method the risk assessments are generally represented in graphs and probability charts which generates a clear understanding among firms and hence is also favoured by management teams. 2.6 Qualitative Risk Analysis: Qualitative risk analysis forms as primary source of data for further evaluations. It acts as an initial screening for all activities associated with the project to identify the possible risks that may or may not require further analysis (Quantitative). Sometimes managers tend to overlook simple risks which may cause substantial damage while looking for more complex ones which might not be that important. Also studying the project document and technologies used might help identifying certain generic risks. For example, a project which uses widely used or known components poses minimal threats when compared to using first to use or more advanced technology. Qualitative analysis helps prioritizing such risks according to the level they affect the final project objectives. This helps the managers with the decision making on how best they can plan the project in a safe way. While doing qualitative risk analysis, managers generally tend to include their personal and previous experiences in dealing with similar kind of projects or tasks. They asses the importance of risk factors according to their experience. In this process we first identify what are the main sources from where risk can originate. This is done by conducting interviews and getting feedback fro questioners. Then an assessment is done to increase the level of understanding of each risk and the extent to which they could affect the project. For this qualitative risk analysis process there is no probability database required and it is widely used analysis by the organisations. 2.7 Techniques used for Qualitative Analysis: The most common methods of obtaining necessary data for screening risks are: To know the stakeholders and shareholders interests regarding the current project. Collecting critical information from stakeholders and clients to analyze the final objectives in a realistic way. Understanding the organizational structure and policies to carry out the task efficiently. Using effective benchmarking techniques from projects handled previously. Understanding the key objectives and criticality of each task associated with the project to categorize risks according to their importance. However, after collecting the information and assigning the risk factors to different grids or categories, the managers need to decide on the need to go for further investigation and to implement effective risk management plans. In order to do this, every manager should ask themselves a few questions such as: What are the critical phases in the project and where the potential risks are going wrong during that phase? The effect of that risk in carrying out the tasks related to the respective phases and how its delaying the overall project. Weather the potential risks can be eliminated by simple methods or changes in the project plan or they are far too complex to minimize without using further analysis and sophisticated techniques. When a manager could answer these questions, he would be in a position to effectively plan and implement risk aversion plans by using appropriate tools or techniques. The Qualitative risk analysis gives the manager a true power of information to make his decision. Generally the qualitative risk analysis will be succeeded by quantitative risk analysis which gives more insight on numbers such as project period, completion dates and budget. 3. Organisational Risk Analysis: The combination of a threat and the resulting impact to the organisation defines the risk to the organisation. It is an important task that we asses all the intricate issues that the organisation is facing. Only after this assessment we can know the overall risk that the firm is facing and the appropriate counter methods that can be implemented in minimizing these risks. When a risk assessment is carried out we take an over all perspective on behalf of the organisation. We first find out every major business processes that take place in the organisation and then we focus on the situations from where risks would arise. We then provide detailed list to management of the different types of risk involved so that management can counter with them.. The National Audit Office Report Managing Risks to Improve Public Services ( NAO 2004) identified five key aspects of organisational risk analysis and made recommendations for improving organisational risk analysis practice in central government. Sufficient time, resource and top level commitment needs to be devoted to handling risks in an organisation. Responsibility and accountability for risks need to be clear, backed up by scrutiny and robust challenge to provide assurance. In an Organisation, departments need to base their judgements about risks on reliable, timely and up to date information. Risk analysis needs to be applied throughout departments delivery networks. Departments need to continue to develop their understanding of the common risks they share and work together to manage them. An Organisational Risk Analysis is a tool for governance and getting its †¦ Students Paper: Direct Quote: †¦ getting its right is important. Selecting the correct method for performing the analysis is †¦ http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Assessing+Organizational+Risk.-a063326228 †¦ getting it right is important. Selecting the correct method for performing the assessment is †¦ †¦ analysis is a critical first step. Successful audit staff or risk analysis team creates evaluation criteria that will be used to evaluate the risks to the organisation. The analysis team reviews each risk and assigns it an impact value. Successful audit staff uses some basic approaches to determine which technique will provide the most value for the organisation. Organisational Risk Analysis is a very important factor while handling projects for all organisations in todays business world. In any project that is undertaken risk is present. It depends on the nature of the project. Some projects are riskier when compared to others; this is due to the kind of risk, the technology present and the environment in which they are encountered. Project management has been designed to coordinate and be in charge of complicated and different business processes in different field such as IT and industrial sectors. (Web2, 2009) This above diagram shows how an organisation relates with other departments like software, technology and environment etc. Handling with any of them causes uncertainties or risks. To overcome those risks associated in projects, ORA (Organisational Risk Analysis) helps. Risk is uncertainty of outcome, and good risk analysis allows an organisation to: Have increased confidence in achieving its desired outcomes Effectively constrain threats to acceptable levels Take informed decisions about exploiting opportunities. When ever we will get a change this risk occurs for those organisations. It is important to understand effect of change and the results of change as these are important in devising an appropriate strategy. Those are Developmental: â€Å"It is a change which enhances or corrects existing aspects of an organisation, often focusing on the progress of a skill or process. â€Å" Transitional: It is episodic, planned and fundamental. Most of the organisational change literature is based on this type of change only. Transformational: It is radical in nature; it requires a change in assumptions made by the organisation and by its people. Using these types of changes and its characteristics can be placed beside two scales: radical- incremental and core- peripheral (Pennington 2003). The diagram above shows us how difficult it is introduce a particular decision into the market and the number of changes that may result in introducing this decision. If major changes are made to the central business then it would initiate a lot of disturbance. The processes that are associated with the core business can be changed as they can be adjusted in the due course of time; this is mostly for firms who are involved with continuous improvement. Successful audit staff or risk analysis team generally use any of the three basic approaches. The database approach The algorithm approach The matrix approach Understanding the strengths and weakness of each method is essential for determining which technique will provide the most value for the organisation. 3.1 The Database Approach: For assessing any kind of organisational risk, compiling a risk database is a popular method. Here each work group is interviewed and the main products and processes are identified where the risks associated with each process are displayed. These are then stocked in a database from where similar reports can be accessed for reference so that the risk faced by the work unit can be analysed. This database approach is chosen by so many accounting firms and it is favoured by them, which may tag it as â€Å"risk profiling †¦ Students Paper: Direct Quote: †¦ the analysis is a critical first step. Successful audit staff or risk †¦ http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Assessing+Organizational+Risk.-a063326228 †¦ the assessment is a critical first step. Successful audit staffs generally use †¦ †¦ or risk analysis team creates evaluation criteria that will be used to evaluate the risks to the organisation. The analysis team reviews each risk and assigns it an impact value. Successful audit staff uses some basic approaches to †¦ Students Paper: Direct Quote: †¦ approaches to determine which technique will provide the most value for the organisation. Organisational †¦ http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Assessing+Organizational+Risk.-a063326228 †¦ is essential for determining which technique will provide the most value for the organization. THE †¦ †¦ organisation. Organisational Risk Analysis is a very important factor while handling projects for all organisations in todays business world. In any project that is undertaken risk is present. It depends on the nature of the project. Some projects are riskier when compared to others; this is due to the kind of risk, the technology present and the environment in which they are encountered. Project management has been designed to coordinate and be in charge of complicated and different business processes in different field such as IT and industrial sectors. (Web2, 2009) This above diagram shows how an organisation relates with other departments like software, technology and environment etc. Handling with any of them causes uncertainties or risks. To overcome those risks associated in projects, ORA (Organisational Risk Analysis) helps. Risk is uncertainty of outcome, and good risk analysis allows an organisation to: Have increased confidence in achieving its desired outcomes Effectively constrain threats to acceptable levels Take informed decisions about exploiting opportunities. When ever we will get a change this risk occurs for those organisations. It is important to understand effect of change and the results of change as these are important in devising an appropriate strategy. Those are Developmental: â€Å"It is a change which enhances or corrects existing aspects of an organisation, often focusing on the progress of a skill or process. â€Å" Transitional Organisational Risk Management in Project Management Organisational Risk Management in Project Management CHAPTER 2 2.1 Preview This chapter provides the reader about the theory and rationale behind the use of Organisational Risk Analysis (ORA) on project management and its methodologies available in the market. It will also cover the work of different authors to afford better understanding of the subjected area i.e. Project management, Risk analysis and Organisational risk analysis. The source of information of this literature review is mainly from books, journals and white papers. 2.2 Introduction Through this literature review one can know what others understanding about this study i.e. nothing but historical perspectives. First part of the literature focuses on project management and risk analysis and risk analysis types, second part of this literature focuses on Organisational Risk Analysis (ORA) and Role of ORA in Project management. It mainly concentrates on Project management, risk analysis and organisational risk analysis. 2.3 Introduction to Project Management: PMBOK (Project Management Body of Knowledge as defined by the Project Management Institute — PMI):Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements. (PMI 2004) According to James P. Lewis â€Å"The Project management is facilitating the planning, scheduling and controlling of all activities that must be done to achieve project objectives† (James P. Lewis: 2007) PRINCE 2 project management methodology: The planning, monitoring and control of all aspects of the project and the motivation of all those involved in it to achieve the project objectives on time and to the specified cost, quality and performance. A project is usually one time activity with a well defined set of desired and results. It can be divided into subtasks that must be accomplished in order to achieve the project goals. In this day and age also it is assumed that project management can be enhanced by scientific methods. There is a very strong reason why these beliefs are created, it all accounts to the fact that todays modern world has given professionals numerous amount of opportunities to execute their projects successfully. Such are the kind of investment options that are given to project investors. They are briefed with all the minute details so that they feel that their investment is secure. They also make sure that the estimated time of completion and the end can be calculated at the beginning of the project itself. The decisions that are taken on a technical basis or which are taken looking at the low opportunity costs that it presents are reversible in nature. The demand for resources can also be calculated once the initial parameters such as the duration and time frame of the project are estimated. Due to the advancement in technology even the most terrible consequences can be predicted. à ¢â‚¬Å"The failure of the project was due to the lack of skills rather than an inappropriate feasibility, suitability or acceptability of the solution. This is a normal–science view of project management.† (Charette and Robert, 1996) The projection of ideas and activities into new accomplishments are one of the common characteristics of all projects. There are many different definitions of what constitutes project management such as â€Å"An unique set of co-ordinated activities, with definite starting and finishing points, undertaken by an individual or a team to meet specific objectives within a definite period of time, cost and performance parameters† (Office of Government Commerce). (Web4, 2009) J. Pinto and Prescott (1990) stated, â€Å"Researchers in project management need to first and most importantly offer a comprehensive, inclusive, and clear definition of project success before attempting to undertake studies of the project implementation process†. (J.Pinto and Prescott, 1990) The modern project management started in 1950s, before this period projects were executed in an unplanned manner and the methods and tools used for execution were not professional in nature. The importance of project management is a very important topic because all organisations i.e. either be they are small or large organisations, those are involved in implementing new accomplishments. These accomplishments may be diverse, such as, the improvement of an innovative product, introducing a new range of products in a manufacturing base, a promotional advertisement or a major construction project. In the 1980s the focus was more on the quality of work. Globalisation played a huge role in the 1990s as we were trying to improve our economy, the 2000s saw projects with decreased time frames. A new field known as project management was developing from all new areas of application which included construction, engineering, telecommunications, and defence. This emerging field has now become an important part of our economy as it has produced a string of fabulous results. Hence it is now being applied by the corporate world as well as the government. Duncan Haughey (2008) explained some main definitions of what project management is: â€Å"Project management is not a continuous process. It has a definite beginning and end.† â€Å"Project management uses various tools to measure accomplishments and track project tasks. These include Work Breakdown Structures, Gantt charts and PERT charts.† â€Å"Projects frequently need resources on an ad-hoc basis as opposed to organisations that have only dedicated full-time positions.† â€Å"Project management reduces risk and increases the chance of success.† â€Å"Successful project management is delivering your projects on time, to brief and within budget.† (Duncan Haughy, 2008) 2.3.1 Methodology of Project Management: According to Bradley (2002) Project management methodology means â€Å"Project Management Methodology focuses on the project and can be in any industry and any type of projects ranging from construction to aerospace industries and from projects of Financial to IT in nature, it encompasses all projects† The above diagram shows the main components of one of the main project management methodology. Some of the elements like project start-up and project closure occur only once. The remaining elements like planning, managing and controlling, form an interactive cycle that may repeat many times before the completion of the project. In other words we can also say project management is the discipline of planning, organising and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific projects goals and objectives. Each and every project is different in nature. Any project would involve a certain amount of risk and hence require perfect planning and execution if they have to succeed. The main aim of project management is to predict any complications or problems in the project well before hand so that when the project plan is made all these factors can also be taken into consideration and hence the chances of the project being completed successfully would be much higher. Almost every project we do in todays business world involve a risk of some kind: change in customer needs, unrealistic time scales, inappropriate staff, poor project specifications , failure to manage user expectations could delay the project. Projects need to be performed and delivered under certain constraints. Traditionally these constraints have been listed as scope, time and quality. This is also called as ‘project management triangle. One side of the triangle cannot be changed without affecting others. The time constraint refers to the amount of time available to complete a project, scope refers to what must be done to produce the projects end result and cost refers to the budgeted amount available for the project. Increasing Scope ( Increasing Time + Increasing Cost Decreasing Time ( Increasing Cost + Reducing Scope Tight Budget ( Increase Time + Reducing Scope. If we modify any of the factors, the other two has to be changed, if not the risk may appear high. But formal risk analysis and risk management can help you to assess these risks and decide what action to take to minimize disruptions to your project plans. According to J. Davidson Frame (2007) the basic outline of project management is described below Project managers bear ultimate responsibility for making things happen. Traditionally, they have carried out this role as mere implementers. To do their jobs they needed to have basic administrative and technical competencies. Today they play a far broader role. In addition to the traditional skills, they need to have business skills, customer relations skills, and political skills. Psychologically, they must be results-oriented self-starters with a high tolerance for ambiguity, because little is clear-cut in todays tumultuous business environment. Shortcomings in any of these areas can lead to project failure. – (J. Davidson Frame, 2007) Project management is discipline that applies to any project; every company has their own way of doing their projects. The project management is not very easy it is totally a leadership position and with technical talent it cannot be done. Project manager without enough experience cannot hold for a long-time on the same project if the assumption of the company goes wrong in selecting the project manager it will be in risk. (Sanjay Murthi, Preventive Risk Management for Software Projects) 2.4 Risk Analysis: The word ‘RISK derives from the early Italian risicare, which means ‘TO DARE. (Websters Dictionary: 1989) One of the most important activities in project management is to identify and manage the uncertainties and problems during the project tenure. When dealing with research and development projects it must be made note of that the number of events present are very high which could alter the course of the project The amount of risk involved in the project would mainly depend on the size of the project. The contractors of the project are the people who deal with the risks of the project, their main duties would involve to identify risks. Then they study them and find as solution so that could remove or minimize them. Apart form this they should also have a clear understanding of the different types of risk involved and ways as to how they can be managed and projects can be completed in a risk free manner. (The Owners Role in Project Risk Management National Research Council (U.S.A). Committee for Oversight and Assessment of U.S. the national academic press, Washington DC). A report that shows assets, vulnerabilities, likelihood of damage, estimates of the costs of recovery, summaries of possible defensive measures and their costs and estimated probable savings from better protection. A risk analysis is the process of assessing the level of risk involved, this is also known as a threat and risk assessment. A threat is a harmful act such as the deployment of a virus or illegal network penetration. A risk is the expectation that a threat may succeed and the potential damage that can occur. (Web1, 2009) Risk analysis allows you to examine the risks that your organization faces. It is the process of systematically identifying and assessing the potential risks and uncertainties that occur when trying to achieve a certain goal (like reaching a target income or finishing a project), and then finding a feasible strategy for most efficiently controlling those risks. ‘The systematic process to understand the nature of and to deduce the level of risk. It provides the basis for risk evaluation and decisions about risk treatment. (AS/NZS 4360:2004 (p. 4). According to Michael R. Greenberg †Risk Analysis ranked among the top 10 journals in the ISI Journal Citation Reports under the social sciences, mathematical methods category is designed to meet the need for organization, integration, and communication and provide a focal point for new developments in the field.† (Michael R. Greenberg: 2008) Evidence from the literature suggests that project managers perform risk analysis because somebody else, e.g. their client, the parent company or the Government, has demanded it (Boothroyd, 1996; Smith, 1998). The analysis of risk is being increasingly viewed as a field in itself, and the demand for a more orderly and formal treatment of risk is great. This international journal is committed to publishing critical empirical research, conference proceedings, and commentaries dealing with risk issues. In other terms we can say the measure of risk can be determined as a product of threat, vulnerability and asset value in an organisation. Risk = Asset * Threat * Vulnerability. Risk analysis may play an important role in cost- benefit studies, which compare the costs of a particular action or project against its potential benefits. It is a systematic study of uncertainties and risks we encounter in business, engineering and many other areas. Risk analysts seek to identify the risks faced by an organization or a business unit, understand how and when they arise, and estimate the impact of adverse outcomes. Techniques used in risk analysis include sensitivity analysis, probability analysis, simulation and modeling. Risk analysis may be used to develop an organizational risk profile, and also may be the first stage in risk management program. Risk analysis may be undertaken to varying degrees of detail depending upon the risk, the purpose of the analysis, and the information, data and resources available. In todays world where competition has become global, it is very important that firms control the different kinds of risk that they are dealing with as it has become an essential part in achieving corporate success. The people who are involved such as customers, investors and others asking companies for complete transparency on their investments. Thus risk analysis is necessary to protect an organisations competitive position. Most industries are particularly plagued by risks, but it has been slow in realising the potential benefits of sound and systematic risk management (Al-Bahar and Crandall, 1990; Ward et. al. 1991; Thomson and Perry, 1992; Flanagan and Norman, 1993; Raftery, 1994; Fellows, 1996; Edward and Bowen, 1998).While coming for the software industries risk analysis and management are a sequential progression that help in guiding a software team in understanding and managing risks. A risk is a potential problem, it might happen, it might not. But regardless of the outcome it is really good idea to identify it, assess its probability of occurrence, estimate the impact and establish a contingency plan should the problem actually occurs. According to Bernstein â€Å"the mystery of risk is a critical step in the development of modern society. One can discuss the validity of his conclusion, but there should be no doubt that risk and uncertainty are important concepts to address for supporting decision-making in many situations†. This Risk Analysis may be qualitative, semi-qualitative or quantitative or a combination of these three, depending on the circumstances. The criticality of risk analysis doesnt wholly depend on identifying the risk factors. It also depends on categorizing them according to their threat level. So let us see how the whole concept of risk analysis starts. There are two types of risk analysis. Both these methods are very important in the assessment of risk and can be executed in any order. It is very important to understand the difference between these two risks as there is a very thin line separating them. Those are: Quantitative Risk Analysis Qualitative Risk Analysis (Identification of types of risk analysis) 2.5. Quantitative Risk Analysis: Quantitative Risk Analysis has become an important component of project management. Quantitative risk analysis attempts to assign independently objective monetary values to the components of the risk assessment and to the assessment of the potential loss. According to Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK  ® Guide, Third edition 2004, Project Management Institute) â€Å"Quantitative Risk Analysis is performed on risks that have been prioritized by the Qualitative Risk Analysis process as potentially and substantially impacting project ‘s completing demands. The Quantitative Risk Analysis process analyzes the effect of those risk events and assigns a numerical rating to those risks.† (PMBOK Guide, 2004) This method gives the project manager a foresight as to how the project would progress if risks associated with it would occur. Hence due to this method the project mangers are able to counter these risks and also account to better execution of projects. A quantitative risk analysis offers the following distinct advantages: much more neutrality is involved in this assessment offers much more advantages to management when compared to assessment techniques More powerful selling tool to management It is very flexible in nature and can be moulded to different situations. It can be adjusted according to the needs of specific industries. Its appeal is very universal in nature and hence does not give rise to much disagreements The base facts of the analysis are very convincing ones. In order to implement quantitative risk analysis, the total estimated value that would account to the losses that would occur due to time delay, theft or loss of data is to be calculated. Then a probability analysis is done so that the chances of the risk occurring can be calculated. After all this is done in the final step the annual loss expectancy is calculated. (Miller). A quantitative risk analysis analyses the results that certain controversial units would have on outcomes that we are most concerned about such as loss, profit and investment returns. Quantitative risk gives different perspectives on different people: To the security consultant: To attract newly started businesses by adapting quantitative analysis to access projects that were out of reach in the past. If the projects met up to the predicted return on investment then it could serve as a better tool for marketing. To the companys upper management: Less vulnerable to company politics time required for assessing proposal validity is very less Inter- relates final results to financial aims and goals. Quantitative risk analysis assists managers in analyzing whether the projects can be completed in a particular time frame and within the required estimated budget. It also helps in finding out the key parameters that would determine the success or failure of the project. It also helps in finding out whether the project is worth investing in for investors. But all these data should have some historical backing otherwise they would be rendered meaningless. These data should be updated from time to time during the due course of the project taking the actual input parameters into consideration. This in other terms is also known as â€Å"Garbage In – Garbage Out. Even though all this is done project management is subject to certain biases. The most basic solution is to collect data from qualitative project management software. This kind of integration has already been implemented and has been successful in the past as well. Quantitative risk analysis tools initiate Monte Carlo process to find out how risks would have an impact on project schedules. The most well known methods for simulating risks and other problems is Event Chain Methodology. In this methodology all the projects tat are present are effected by certain external parameters which could in turn change the face of the project. These events should be analysed with the help of the qualitative risk management software. This is an important aspect as these measures could give rise to event chains that can alter the course of the project. By finding out these event chains the risks involved can be reduced. Quantitative risk analysis is more related to implementing safety measures when compared to qualitative risk analysis is. This risk analysis when implemented by companies tries to protect the firm from every defined risk. It also helps in determining which counter method can be used for minimizing the risks involved with projects. In this method the risk assessments are generally represented in graphs and probability charts which generates a clear understanding among firms and hence is also favoured by management teams. 2.6 Qualitative Risk Analysis: Qualitative risk analysis forms as primary source of data for further evaluations. It acts as an initial screening for all activities associated with the project to identify the possible risks that may or may not require further analysis (Quantitative). Sometimes managers tend to overlook simple risks which may cause substantial damage while looking for more complex ones which might not be that important. Also studying the project document and technologies used might help identifying certain generic risks. For example, a project which uses widely used or known components poses minimal threats when compared to using first to use or more advanced technology. Qualitative analysis helps prioritizing such risks according to the level they affect the final project objectives. This helps the managers with the decision making on how best they can plan the project in a safe way. While doing qualitative risk analysis, managers generally tend to include their personal and previous experiences in dealing with similar kind of projects or tasks. They asses the importance of risk factors according to their experience. In this process we first identify what are the main sources from where risk can originate. This is done by conducting interviews and getting feedback fro questioners. Then an assessment is done to increase the level of understanding of each risk and the extent to which they could affect the project. For this qualitative risk analysis process there is no probability database required and it is widely used analysis by the organisations. 2.7 Techniques used for Qualitative Analysis: The most common methods of obtaining necessary data for screening risks are: To know the stakeholders and shareholders interests regarding the current project. Collecting critical information from stakeholders and clients to analyze the final objectives in a realistic way. Understanding the organizational structure and policies to carry out the task efficiently. Using effective benchmarking techniques from projects handled previously. Understanding the key objectives and criticality of each task associated with the project to categorize risks according to their importance. However, after collecting the information and assigning the risk factors to different grids or categories, the managers need to decide on the need to go for further investigation and to implement effective risk management plans. In order to do this, every manager should ask themselves a few questions such as: What are the critical phases in the project and where the potential risks are going wrong during that phase? The effect of that risk in carrying out the tasks related to the respective phases and how its delaying the overall project. Weather the potential risks can be eliminated by simple methods or changes in the project plan or they are far too complex to minimize without using further analysis and sophisticated techniques. When a manager could answer these questions, he would be in a position to effectively plan and implement risk aversion plans by using appropriate tools or techniques. The Qualitative risk analysis gives the manager a true power of information to make his decision. Generally the qualitative risk analysis will be succeeded by quantitative risk analysis which gives more insight on numbers such as project period, completion dates and budget. 3. Organisational Risk Analysis: The combination of a threat and the resulting impact to the organisation defines the risk to the organisation. It is an important task that we asses all the intricate issues that the organisation is facing. Only after this assessment we can know the overall risk that the firm is facing and the appropriate counter methods that can be implemented in minimizing these risks. When a risk assessment is carried out we take an over all perspective on behalf of the organisation. We first find out every major business processes that take place in the organisation and then we focus on the situations from where risks would arise. We then provide detailed list to management of the different types of risk involved so that management can counter with them.. The National Audit Office Report Managing Risks to Improve Public Services ( NAO 2004) identified five key aspects of organisational risk analysis and made recommendations for improving organisational risk analysis practice in central government. Sufficient time, resource and top level commitment needs to be devoted to handling risks in an organisation. Responsibility and accountability for risks need to be clear, backed up by scrutiny and robust challenge to provide assurance. In an Organisation, departments need to base their judgements about risks on reliable, timely and up to date information. Risk analysis needs to be applied throughout departments delivery networks. Departments need to continue to develop their understanding of the common risks they share and work together to manage them. An Organisational Risk Analysis is a tool for governance and getting its †¦ Students Paper: Direct Quote: †¦ getting its right is important. Selecting the correct method for performing the analysis is †¦ http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Assessing+Organizational+Risk.-a063326228 †¦ getting it right is important. Selecting the correct method for performing the assessment is †¦ †¦ analysis is a critical first step. Successful audit staff or risk analysis team creates evaluation criteria that will be used to evaluate the risks to the organisation. The analysis team reviews each risk and assigns it an impact value. Successful audit staff uses some basic approaches to determine which technique will provide the most value for the organisation. Organisational Risk Analysis is a very important factor while handling projects for all organisations in todays business world. In any project that is undertaken risk is present. It depends on the nature of the project. Some projects are riskier when compared to others; this is due to the kind of risk, the technology present and the environment in which they are encountered. Project management has been designed to coordinate and be in charge of complicated and different business processes in different field such as IT and industrial sectors. (Web2, 2009) This above diagram shows how an organisation relates with other departments like software, technology and environment etc. Handling with any of them causes uncertainties or risks. To overcome those risks associated in projects, ORA (Organisational Risk Analysis) helps. Risk is uncertainty of outcome, and good risk analysis allows an organisation to: Have increased confidence in achieving its desired outcomes Effectively constrain threats to acceptable levels Take informed decisions about exploiting opportunities. When ever we will get a change this risk occurs for those organisations. It is important to understand effect of change and the results of change as these are important in devising an appropriate strategy. Those are Developmental: â€Å"It is a change which enhances or corrects existing aspects of an organisation, often focusing on the progress of a skill or process. â€Å" Transitional: It is episodic, planned and fundamental. Most of the organisational change literature is based on this type of change only. Transformational: It is radical in nature; it requires a change in assumptions made by the organisation and by its people. Using these types of changes and its characteristics can be placed beside two scales: radical- incremental and core- peripheral (Pennington 2003). The diagram above shows us how difficult it is introduce a particular decision into the market and the number of changes that may result in introducing this decision. If major changes are made to the central business then it would initiate a lot of disturbance. The processes that are associated with the core business can be changed as they can be adjusted in the due course of time; this is mostly for firms who are involved with continuous improvement. Successful audit staff or risk analysis team generally use any of the three basic approaches. The database approach The algorithm approach The matrix approach Understanding the strengths and weakness of each method is essential for determining which technique will provide the most value for the organisation. 3.1 The Database Approach: For assessing any kind of organisational risk, compiling a risk database is a popular method. Here each work group is interviewed and the main products and processes are identified where the risks associated with each process are displayed. These are then stocked in a database from where similar reports can be accessed for reference so that the risk faced by the work unit can be analysed. This database approach is chosen by so many accounting firms and it is favoured by them, which may tag it as â€Å"risk profiling †¦ Students Paper: Direct Quote: †¦ the analysis is a critical first step. Successful audit staff or risk †¦ http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Assessing+Organizational+Risk.-a063326228 †¦ the assessment is a critical first step. Successful audit staffs generally use †¦ †¦ or risk analysis team creates evaluation criteria that will be used to evaluate the risks to the organisation. The analysis team reviews each risk and assigns it an impact value. Successful audit staff uses some basic approaches to †¦ Students Paper: Direct Quote: †¦ approaches to determine which technique will provide the most value for the organisation. Organisational †¦ http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Assessing+Organizational+Risk.-a063326228 †¦ is essential for determining which technique will provide the most value for the organization. THE †¦ †¦ organisation. Organisational Risk Analysis is a very important factor while handling projects for all organisations in todays business world. In any project that is undertaken risk is present. It depends on the nature of the project. Some projects are riskier when compared to others; this is due to the kind of risk, the technology present and the environment in which they are encountered. Project management has been designed to coordinate and be in charge of complicated and different business processes in different field such as IT and industrial sectors. (Web2, 2009) This above diagram shows how an organisation relates with other departments like software, technology and environment etc. Handling with any of them causes uncertainties or risks. To overcome those risks associated in projects, ORA (Organisational Risk Analysis) helps. Risk is uncertainty of outcome, and good risk analysis allows an organisation to: Have increased confidence in achieving its desired outcomes Effectively constrain threats to acceptable levels Take informed decisions about exploiting opportunities. When ever we will get a change this risk occurs for those organisations. It is important to understand effect of change and the results of change as these are important in devising an appropriate strategy. Those are Developmental: â€Å"It is a change which enhances or corrects existing aspects of an organisation, often focusing on the progress of a skill or process. â€Å" Transitional

Americans Motivation to Work Essay -- Labor Supply Economics

American's Motivation to Work The majority of Americans get up each morning and go to work in order to earn money. But what are the true motivators for working and where do they come from? How do wage rates and other forms of compensation affect the quantity of labor supplied to the market? This essay will discuss how labor effects the economy. Each person working plays a role in society and production output. These are areas that need to be addressed when the supply of labor is being discussed. The motivation to work arises from a variety of social, psychological and economic forces. People need income to pay their bills, feel that they have a role in society and also feel a sense of acheivement. Although there is always a choice, that is not working and not getting paid. People choose between labor and leisure according to the percieved rewards of each. The marginal utility of labor reflects the satisifaction to be gained from added income, as well as any direct pleasure a job may provide. A worker compares these satisfactions with those of leisure and chooses the one that yeilds the greatest utility for available time and wage rates. As it may seem obvisous to some, the more a worker gets paid, the more encouragement that worker has to work more hours and produce more output. Thus, higher wages may increase the marginal utility of an hour's labor, this being a substitiute for labor. But it can also have the opposite effect. This being that if a wor...

Global Warming Essay -- Greenhouse Effect Climate Change

Global Warming The humanity is currently facing one of its biggest problems ever. Indeed, the Earth is warming and consequences might be devastating for the future generations. There is a general agreement among scientists that Earth's climate is being affected by industrial society. Industry affects global climate by releasing greenhouse gases (GHGs). The most significant GHG is carbon dioxide (CO2). While some GHGs occur naturally, others are released in the atmosphere by certain human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation activities and some agricultural practices. These activities affect climate by increasing the so-called 'greenhouse effect'. GHGs concentrate in the Earth's atmosphere and trap heat by blocking some of the long-wave energy the Earth normally radiates back to space. The effect is weather and climate changes. The potential consequences include more extreme weather, dislocation of agricultural and commercial activities, expansion of desert regions, a rise i n sea levels, and damaged natural habitats and ecosystems. All of these threaten the natural capital that provides the economy's resource base. Mankind pours more than 6 billion tons of carbon dioxide each year. If nothing is done, the total is expected to be 20 billion tons by 2050. Therefore, we must act now. Since the 1980's the global concern about climate change has been rising and politics have begun to address the issue through international co-operation. Nation states have set ambitious goals through the Kyoto protocol, but international regulation is not an easy thing and the structure that rules it is perhaps not well adapted for the issue of Climate Change. Even if the regulations are not yet finalised, some companies recognise business reasons to reduce GHG emissions, which go beyond the obvious concern of protecting the natural environment. The Gilette Company is one of those that have taken measures to use energy in an efficient manner. The first international conference on environment and development was the 'Rio Earth Summit' in 1992, where the United Nations Framework Convention on climate Change (UNFCCC) was created. Today, 181 governments and the European Union (EU) are parties to the Convention. They meet regularly at the annual Conference of the Parties (COP), where they review the implementation of the Convention and continue talk... ... Web sites  · www.guardian.co.uk  · www.lemonde.fr  · www.sovereignty.net  · www.unfccc.org  · www.ipcc.ch  · www.bsr.org  · www.gilette.com (1998 Report on the Environment, Health and Safety) Books  · French, Hillary, 2000. Coping with ecological globalization (State of the world 2000)  · White, Brian Richard Little, and Michael Smith, 1997. Issues in World Politics, Chap. 11: Vogler, John. Environment and Natural Resources. London: MacMillan Press Ltd Articles  · Elliot, Larry. 'After the failure of international nerve at The Hague, it is surely time to set up new global institutions'. The Guardian, Nov. 29, 2000  · O'Neill Packard, K. and Reinhardt, F. 'What every executive needs to know about Global Warming'. Harvard Business Review, July-August 2000. pp. 129-135  · 'On Thin Ice - Cold feet and hot air on Global Warming'. World Press Review, February 2001: - Petitjean, Gerard. 'The 21st Century: Hot, Hot, Hot'. Le Nouvel Observateur, Paris, France, Nov. 23, 2000. - Radford, Tim. 'A Grim Picture'. The Guardian, London, England, Nov. 15, 2000. - Joku, Harlyne. 'Sea Levels Rising'. Gemini News Service, London, England, Nov. 3, 2000.

College And Sleeping :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Are you curious if those all night cram study hours are working? I bet your wondering if they are actually helping or hurting your midterm grade? I’m sure all of us have spent an all nighter studying for that Chemistry or Economics exam that you just have to do well on because its 50 percent of your grade. Not only are you studying so hard for that A+, but your mental well-being. We all feel pressured to do well in college for many reasons. For that high paying job were promised if we graduate from a top-notch school or what about the assumption that you will have a better future. And for those of you whose parents are paying thousands of dollars for tuition, wouldn’t want to let mom or dad down. The answer is here. June J. Pilcher conducted a study of whether sleep deprivation affects your ability of acing that test if you just would have went to bed earlier.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  June J. Pilcher published an article â€Å"How sleep Deprivation Affects Psychological Variables Related to College Students Cognitive Performance,† in the Journal of American College Health on November of 1997.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Voluntary sleep deprivation is a common occurrence for many collge students, who often partially deprive themselves of sleep during the week and compensate by increasing their sleep time over the weekend. This pattern of sleep deprivation and rebound becomes more pronounced around examination periods, sometimes resulting in 24 to 48 hours of sleep deprivation. By depriving themselves of sleep, college students are not only increasing their feelings of sleepiness during the day, thus decreasing their ability to pay attention in class, but are also negatively affecting their ability to perform on exams.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The effect of sleep deprivation on psychological variable associated with performance, such as self-reported estimates of attention, effort, and performance, have not been thoroughly investigated. Few studies have examined perceived effort and performance, and the results from those studies have often been contradictory. For example, some researchers have suggested that sleep deprivation may affect the willingness of the individual to put forth the effort to perform well on a task more than the actual ability of the individual to perform.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By contrast, other researchers have concluded that people may realize a decrease in performance levels following sleep deprivation and attempt to overcome this by increasing their effort . However other studies have shown that a perceived increase in effort does not appear to overcome the harmful effects of sleep deprivation.

Advertising encourages a desire for products which people do not actually need

They are everywhere. Banners, billboards, Internet Websites, newspapers, radio spots, television commercials, magazines, logos on clothing, cars and even cutlery. Advertising has so permeated everyday life that at last count, individuals can expect to be bombarded by approximately 1200 messages everyday, telling them what to eat, wear, do and believe in. The ubiquity of advertising is a phenomenon of our modern world akin to and sometimes elevated to an art form, a consequence of the much touted ethos of free trade and capitalistic consumerism. But not all are lured by the siren song of the commercial jingle.Cynics lambast advertisers for convincing people to spend money they do not have, for something that they do not need. Malcolm Muggeridge, prominent British journalist and thinker direfully prophesied that history will remember advertising as â€Å"one of the evils of our time†, wrongfully stimulating people to â€Å"constantly want things, want this, want that†. Cr itics like John Arbuthnot Fischer see the corrupt connection between society’s deteriorating values and the hidden agenda that advertising subtly (or not so subtly) champions: that youth equals popularity, popularity equals success, success equals happiness.How does advertising weave such a hypnotic influence? The ultimate objective of advertising is to sell products, services and ideas persuasively and creatively. To that end, advertisers and copy writers resort to all manner of strategy to arrest the attention of consumers long enough to create awareness and perhaps, even desire for the product, service or idea. The variety of methods to entice both existing and potential clientele range from the obvious to the subtle, from the staid to the subliminal (incidentally outlawed in many countries).Whatever the methods used, professional advertisers all agree that good advertising is not just about circulating information; it is about penetrating the public mind with desires and belief. In fact, advertising guru Leo Burnett once said that the secret of effective and original commercials is not the creation of new and tricky words and pictures, but one of putting familiar words and pictures into new relationships. Such perception altering strategies are what may induce consumers to desire and eventually buy the superfluous and the frivolous.Consider for instance De Beers diamonds. Before its advertisements for diamonds were launched, the gemstone was merely another sparkling jewel, fit for royalty, not so much for the commoners. By equating diamonds with love, De Beers successfully created a hitherto non-existent appetite for the stones (albeit really lovely ones). If a girl does not get a diamond engagement ring, the husband-to-be had better be prepared for trouble. Take a closer look also at the latest range of Louis Vuitton advertisements which capitalize on big-name appeal.The very public figures of Mikhail Gorbachev (former premier of the Russia, no les s), Sean Connery (of James Bond 007 fame), even queen of pop and controversy Madonna, who have fronted these advertisements convey more than just a sense of the luxury that the brand is famous for. These iconic figures, exuding power, history and a touch of legend, are whom a successful generation has grown up with and therefore feel a connection. You may not need a Louis Vuitton bag, but being able to buy one becomes a subtle statement that you have arrived, putting you in the same league as the celebrities who endorse the brand.Yet, while it is true that advertising can generate awareness of people’s desire of things that they now know to exist, it is equally true that advertising cannot create a need that did not previously exist. Jeff I Richards points out that advertising will only die when â€Å"people everywhere are satisfied with their weight, their hair, their skin, their wardrobes and their aroma†. Certainly, advertising brings to the fore feelings of inadequ acy, lack and perhaps deep underlying insecurities that may be alleviated to some extent via purchasing a product or service.Scarcity is the fear that you may miss an opportunity to purchase a product. Thus â€Å"one day sales† and phrases such as, â€Å"for a limited time only† or â€Å"limited supply† are commonly employed to increase sales and promote the idea that you can supply a lack. Advertisements about health often capitalise on fear to get the audiences’ attention. Once this is accomplished they hope to â€Å"scare† the audience enough to produce an attitude change, be it buying their product or changing your lifestyle.Alcohol and cigarette advertisements appeal to peoples’ desires for pleasure Models and actors are portrayed as having a good time, leading to the belief that if you purchase these products you too will have a good time. Of course, many advertisements employ more than one technique in attempting to persuade the audie nce. Plastic surgery ads, for instance, work well by appealing to people's love of beauty via exposing their fear of aging as well as their vanity and egotism.Fear, love, pleasure, and vanity are thus powerful motivators of behaviour that can supposedly be eradicated or fulfilled through some product, service or action, at least in the mind of the consumer. Without them, advertising messages are simply messages. Moreover, while it is true that some deep-seated desires rule human nature and behaviour, almost everyone exercises a choice as to when and how such desires are met. To some extent, the consciousness-raising power of advertisements puts the onus of action on the consumer and provides some options for exercising that initiative.Yet, advertisements cannot make one do anything that one is not willing or able to undertake in the first place. Campaigns and posters (a type of advertising) warning against the evils of smoking are visibly mounted, but have not really produced a sign ificant reduction in the numbers of smokers in Singapore despite the fact that cigarette advertising is banned here! Health promotion advisories across the world promote healthy eating plans and options, but that does not stop one from chomping on that artery-clogging hamburger or carcinogenic char kway teow.In fact, not all advertising is focused on inducing consumers to purchase the unnecessary. To believe that would be to limit the many useful functions it fulfils. There are genuine needs that require the consciousness-raising and educational function of advertising to fulfil. Look at the countless advertisements for domestic, office and personal needs. Consider also the innovations that advertising brings to one’s awareness. Take into account that advertisements can serve as reminders to consumers, particularly when a consumer has a specific need or desire that can be associated with a product or service.At the end of the day, what must be remembered is that in a free-mar ket society where a plethora of goods and services is available, consumers ultimately exercise the responsibility that accompanies the freedom of choice. Advertisers will continue to market their wares strategically, but consumers are not helpless victims held enthralled in a life-or-death struggle. If they were, advertisers would not have to wrack their brains to conjure up creative ways to entice customers. To think otherwise is to sorely underestimate the strength of the human mind and spirit.